CURRICULUM ISSUES

Curriculum development

The curriculum may be defined as: A syllabus may be defined as an outline or brief description of the main points of a course of study.

A course may be described as a series of lessons that are to be delivered over a period of time and at intervals specified by the course provider. In further and adult education many courses are offered that require attendance for one or more sessions weekly over a whole academic year. Courses may or may not be examined or lead to qualifications.

Short courses, full-cost courses and courses negotiated with students or other clients are examples of courses that are also offered by educational institutions.

A modular course is a self-contained unit in a longer course of study. A modular course structure can be ideal when operating a flexible system of enrolment or flexible starting dates; or when taking account of student’s previous experience.

A programme is a plan of intended proceedings that may be in the form of a descriptive list or schedule of activities. A teaching and learning programme may comprise a series of courses in a particular field of study or in another instance simply a particular instructional sequence. In industrial contexts the word "programme" may be used rather than the word "course" to describe staff development training activities.

A core curriculum comprises those common elements in a curriculum that are studied by all students taking the relevant programme.

A scheme of work is a planning document that gives information about the student group; course aims and objectives; organizational factors; methodology and evaluation.

Content is all that should be included in the curriculum. Content may be determined by carrying out a task analysis’ or topic analysis’, the results of which are then organized into a logical sequence and targeted at a level appropriate to the learners.

A lesson plan is based on specific learning objectives that describe how the course aims will be satisfied. It amplifies the information given in the scheme of work and it should be carefully structured in a logical sequence.

A curriculum provides a vehicle for planning a course, and it is very complex. Curriculum development comprises eight main components:
  1. Identifying and analyzing needs.
  2. Writing curriculum aims and objectives.
  3. Selecting course content.
  4. Designing teaching and learning strategies.
  5. Structuring the curriculum: teaching and learning programme.
  6. Assessment.
  7. Resource planning.
  8. Monitoring and evaluating responsiveness, quality, efficiency and effectiveness of outcomes.
Each component is interrelated with the others, so the process of curriculum development should be ongoing, with continuous adjustments being made as a result of feedback from monitoring and evaluation.

Training needs analysis
A needs analysis is client-centered and may include training needs relating to an individual, group, industrial or commercial enterprise, institution or other external agency. Such needs are often classified as being demand-led.
Needs may also be anticipated by a supplier of training or education by referring to a syllabus, new legislation, market trends or otherwise predicting the likely demand for a particular learning services. Such provision is described as supply-led.
In either case the design and implementation of the curriculum must, if it is humanly possible to do so, satisfy expectations of the clients, that is, fulfil their needs.

Curriculum design and objectives
The design and content of the curriculum is decided and its success measured by the degree to which knowledge of the psychology of learning has been applied to the planning and learning experiences.
The purpose of formulating objectives during the process of curriculum development explains the relevance of writing objectives to student behavior and the arena in which it operates. The most useful form for stating objectives is to express them in terms which identify both the kind of behavior to be developed in the student and the content or area in life in which this behavior is to operate.

Course content
The substance of course material may be influenced by the course team or teacher in the role of curriculum developers or by powerful external influences or by the student group itself. When selecting course content the key concept to bear in mind is that the learning experience should be designed to assist the students in their efforts to attain the course objectives set. Content should therefore be arranged in appropriate sequential order, pitched at the right level and delivered at the optimum rate.

Strategies
When designing teaching and learning strategies, the teacher is required to structure and organize learning so that account is taken of student-related factors such as need, ability, interest, previous experience, linkages between various subjects and learning style. Provision should be made to involve students actively in decisions about their learning and to recognize the value of two-way negotiations.
Modes of study are changing and computer-based study, distance learning, open learning and work-based learning now feature as important strategies for new programmes. The possibility of providing a flexible learning environment and adequate support for students in the form of counseling and guidance facilities also needs to be considered as does the need to co-ordinate sequences of experiences in an integrated way.
Learning is an active process and the effectiveness of learning will depend on: the learner’s understanding of the process in which they are involved; transfer of training; role of perception; reinforcement available; motivation and group processes operating.

Structuring the curriculum
When structuring the curriculum, early communication of the purpose and value of the course and its activities should be planned. Curiosity should be promoted and a variety of different types of activity scheduled. Commitment to the attainment of valued knowledge or skills that are available to participants should be sought and the relevance of the learning to real world activities assured.
The need to provide continuity and an integrated course that embraces other subjects being studied as well as vocational experience should be recognized. Linkages between syllabus references, themes, concepts, and topics should be planned and a balanced structure giving a properly weighted allocation of resources made.
From the wide range of learning methods available, techniques should be matched to the method of learning to be applied, whether this be memorizing, understanding or doing. Recent curriculum developments require that a good level of skill be demonstrated in the writing of schemes of work and lesson plans, and in the preparation of assignments and other learning materials.

Assessment
The purposes of assessment as far as curriculum development are concerned are diverse and many, but some of the commonly used assessment processes involve: Resource planning
Resources utilized in delivering the curriculum are either in the form of: Now more than ever, we are faced with the need to consider the effectiveness and efficiency of further and adult education in terms of resource implications. There is a need to try to establish the efficiency of operation by measuring output against input. The message for curriculum developers is therefore: use your resources wisely, effectively and efficiently.

Monitoring and evaluation
The final stage in curriculum development is the monitoring, reviewing and evaluation of the responsiveness of the course to the needs identified, and the quality, efficiency and effectiveness of outcomes. Another check that is normally made is that of relating student’s actual performances to original objectives. The review and evaluation process identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the course and gives rise to modifications for future planning consideration. The evaluators need to make all of the course team aware of modifications needed and feed back information to all concerned in the course operation.
An element of evaluation that is often overlooked is "client satisfaction", that is, whether the students were happy and contented with the learning experience, and whether or not they thought the course met their needs and expectations.
Monitoring, review and evaluation of the quality of teaching and learning will need to become second nature to all teachers employed in the 2000s.

Planning the curriculum

There are several stakeholders with an interest in curriculum development, planning and implementation, for example those in institutes and on governing bodies, the local government, Ministry of Education, researchers and educationists with an interest in institute effectiveness and improvement. They each have similar and complementary concerns which feed into effective curriculum development, planning and delivery. Effective learning has to be planned, curriculum planning for effective learning entails attention to overall (long-term) planning, medium- and short-term planning, and planning very specifically for the contents, organization, pedagogy and feedback of every aspect of every lesson.
In addition there are three levels of planning: long-term, medium-term and short-term.
Long-term planning resonates with the notion of aims. Medium-term planning sets objectives and goals, perhaps of a non-behavioral nature. Short-term planning – focuses on intended learning outcomes – may be performance-based, possibly including, behavioral objectives.

Long-term planning, in which the whole institute, departments, subjects and faculties set out the overall curriculum framework that fits with the institute’s declared aims and policies, the subject order, the time available for teaching, resources (both within and outside the institutes), reference to individual student’s needs, abilities and interests, the balance of subjects on the overall curriculum diet for students, the need to establish continuity and progression within and across units of work. Long-term planning may have taken place before the teacher enters the institute.

Medium-term planning, in which the programmes of work for each group (however defined, e.g. class, year group) are set out, together with an outline of how the programmes will enable assessment to be undertaken. Medium-term planning is that which identifies units of work over a term or semester. The teacher can reasonably be expected to be part of this planning when involved in a long block practice (e.g. a term or most of a term).

Short-term planning is that in which individual teachers set out what they will be teaching on a day-to-day, lesson-by-lesson basis. The teacher can expect to have sight of the long-term planning. The teacher will probably be actively concerned with medium-term and short-term planning. With regard to medium-term planning it could well be the case that he or she becomes part of a team that plans the content and "delivery" of the curriculum.
The need for curriculum coherence to be addressed requires a team-based approach. Gone are the days when an individual teacher could plan what she would do with her class. Teams can be within and across subjects, departments, faculties and age phases.
A full curriculum strategy addresses several features: Although the list of factors that require planning may seem overwhelming it can be made manageable by careful staging.

The concerns a major area of curriculum planning, which is divided into three stages: Schemes of work
A scheme of work if a planning document that gives information about: Factors influencing the design
When planning a teaching and learning programme, the scheme of work, together with sets of more detailed lesson plans, is the key to a well organized course; competence is required in each of the important areas outlined above.
  1. The student group. The scheme of work should give details of student numbers and age range but more importantly it should reflect the learners’ needs.

  2. Course aims and objectives. The aims and objectives should be written with a clear idea of the intended outcomes of training in the planner’s mind. Where possible, a course team approach should be used with each member contributing to planning and preparation. Liaison with other course providers, teachers’ centers or curriculum bases is very helpful when confronted with curriculum development work for the first time or when there appears to be no one to help you. When writing a scheme of work, the aims and objectives with the stated course aims and should be appropriate to the needs of the learners rather than the teacher.

  3. Organizational factors. Information concerning the venue, time-tabling, staffing and other administrative detail is often included in a scheme of work. Planning course content also involves a need to design appropriate learning experiences, learning materials and strategies, preferably in consultation with students or with the aid of feedback from similar courses. Where a core curriculum is operating, the scheme of work should be constructed against the background of the identified core. Learning experiences should be integrated with vocational activities and work-based assignments set where applicable. Resource planning is another important factor in the design of schemes of work.

  4. Methodology. The teaching and learning strategy specified in the scheme of work will depend on the subject matter, student group and course context. There is no one right strategy for every lesson, course or student group. The teacher concerned will need to be able to plan, prepare and carry out a teaching programme using different methods and techniques based on a knowledge of the principles of teaching and an understanding of learning principles. Involving the students in the selection of learning methods is recommended, as this is likely to promote a positive and helpful attitude towards learning. When learners are invited to take some responsibility for their own learning and outcomes through experimental learning opportunities, self-reliance is promoted and a greater work output may be possible than where a more passive mode is adopted. Negotiation may involve regular reviewing and the agreement of learning agendas or contracts with individual learners, especially when individuals are working at their own speed. Learner-centered, participative and experiential methods are worth a try, as is the opportunity to practice skill transfer in a number of different situations.

  5. Evaluation. The scheme of work should indicate how checks of learning are to be carried out and how feedback in the form of knowledge of results will be provided. Formative assessments, study guidance and support strategies will need to be worked out and adequate arrangements made for consultation with students in the form of reviews and self-assessment opportunities.
Integrating schemes of work, outcomes and assessment procedures
When planning a unified curriculum experience for students it may be necessary to collaborate with others in order to achieve a proper degree of integration, especially when working with students engaged in cross-college courses. In such cases it is necessary to create a learning environment that demonstrates continuity of approach.
The opportunity to optimize the contributions of colleagues and students should be seized if it presents itself. A team approach can be very productive as can a ready response to colleagues’ and external assessors’ criticisms and advice.

When integrating the two important course components – activities and resources – the aim should be to arrange learning experiences that encourage demonstrable outcomes. Teaching and learning approaches should be compatible with course aims and with the student group concerned, and a review of learning experiences and course materials in relation to the aims should be conducted regularly. Feedback from the reviews will most probably result in the need to modify and update materials and strategies. A continuous process of self-appraisal, course review and evaluation is advocated.

Material that encourages transfer of training and which applies to situations in a variety of contexts is of great value to learners who may wish to re-deploy skills that they already own but may not be able to use at the present time. Being able to adapt materials to the needs of different groups of learners and to integrate learning materials into the overall training programme is an important skill for teachers. Assessment procedures also need to be established with learners and a system of recording set up, either by logbook, profile, review sheets, case studies, diaries or as agreed.
All of the above elements need to be considered when devising the scheme of work. The relative importance attached to each topic and the need to integrate theory and practice should be reflected in the overall plan.

Lesson planning

People learn in many different ways, and teaching strategies must take account of such parameters as ability, interest, motivation, difficulty, group mix, physical and intellectual handicaps and many others. No single learning theory can cope with every aspect of group needs. But a teacher armed with a good basic knowledge and understanding of learning principles will be better placed to make a conscious choice of teaching method than one who does not have such an understanding.

Signal learning involves the student in responding to a signal. Classroom examples include the way teachers gain attention at the start of a lesson either verbally or non-verbally and the signal the class gives to pack up at the end.

Stimulus-response learning – this form of learning results from trying out one form of response after another until the correct response is discovered. The correct response if often rewarded in some way. Thus, behavior which is followed by reinforcement will tend to be repeated, while behavior which is not reinforced or which results in discomfort will be less likely to occur.

"Gestalt" or "Insight" learning – "Gestalt" learning theory stresses the importance of pattern, organization and seeing things as "wholes" rather than as collections of individual elements. Their views have been informed by a number of experiments where solutions to problems were attributed to "insight". In problem solving, insight is the name given to the process involving the perception of relationships leading to a solution. The student surveys each element of a problem and calls up previous knowledge and rules from his memory store. Perceptual organization takes place as he tries to formulate a pattern of activity which will solve the problem or arrange the links connecting various elements into the correct sequence. All aspects of the problem are surveyed; then, in a flash of insight, the solution suddenly becomes apparent and the requisite responses are made. The problem is solved and the method of solution may be repeated or applied to other problems with similar parameters. The problem has been solved by insight brought about by a complete understanding of all relationships appertaining to it.

Individuals also learn through verbal association. An example of verbal association is naming. In order to be able to name an object, such as a cone or cube, the observer must see the object, recognize its shape and know its name. If these three conditions are met, the observer will be able to say, "this is a cone", or "this is a cube". We can see from this that naming is an elementary form of learning met in everyday life.

Multiple discrimination – this type of learning requires the student to be able to distinguish objects or words from a very wide variety of items, many of which bear similarities and thus lead to problems of interference. The student must also be able to identify similarities and differences in objects and to construct chains of words in correct and unambiguous sequences.

Concept learning. A concept can be defined as the properties, essential qualities or relationships common to a class of objects. Concepts may relate to concrete things in the real world or to abstract ideas such as beauty, fairness, equality, honesty or justice. With concept learning groups of objects with common features are known as classes, while general ideas about classes are know as concepts. Concepts are formed as a result of experiences within the physical environment as well as thought verbal communication related to events. In addition to the physical attributes of a house, such as bricks and mortar, ideas about the functions of a family within a house are also built into the concept. Having once acquired the concept "house" we are able to discuss houses or read about them using mental images drawn from our imagination and hence learn without actually seeing the real thing. In the classroom when a word is written on the blackboard or spoken by the teacher, a response of some kind will be forthcoming. This is because the words represent real things in the minds of the students. The response may be in form of physical behavior at the mention of a word because the word has signal significance. On the other hand, students may recall abstract ideas suggested by the word because the word has semantic significance-going beyond the recognized simple meaning of the word to form a general concept from consideration of particular instances. In general, when teaching concepts, the teacher should move from the concrete to the abstract from the known and familiar to the unknown, and should, wherever possible, relate examples or analogies to the students’ lives.

Problem solving. A problem is a matter in which it is difficult to decide the best course of action. An academic problem usually arises as a proposition in which some outcome or end-product is required. Such problems involve the application of one or more principles. Problem solving is the most complicated form of learning behavior. It leads to the formation of new principles of a higher order. The student is required to consider the problem and to organize knowledge of several principles at one time in order to reach a successful solution. If the students are able to find words to express their thoughts and to talk about fundamental principles bearing on the problem they will be well on the way to solving the problem. This type of activity is met daily at work. A problem arises and two or more people get together to find a solution. Trial and error learning can waste a lot of time and the students run the risk of learning redundant and incorrect responses in their efforts to reach a solution. Problem solving which is guided by a teacher is much more productive. It involves the combination of learned principles to achieve some end, and once this end has been achieved, the principles involved may be transferred to many other situations. Learning achieved by problem solving is long retained and seldom forgotten. In formal academic situations the teacher should analyze the problem and ensure that the student has all essential concepts and principles involved in the problem before being introduced to it. While problem solving is taking place, the teacher should be on hand when needed to guide the student through the maze towards a solution. Students should be able to see the overall pattern and should make use of the transfer of learning available.

A purposeful and organized approach needs to be adopted when setting about the task of planning and developing the lesson. Before starting working on a lesson plan, due consideration should be given to the category of students needing to learn, their needs, course requirements, lesson content, resources and methods to be employed.

Designing a lesson involves three main stages:
  1. Collecting, selecting and preparing relevant subject matter.

    The lesson aims and objectives should be written down and should relate to the contribution the lesson will make to the whole course. Sources of information should be explored and the structure and sequence of the lesson decided.

  2. Preparing material and planning methods to be employed.

    The extent of the material to be used and methods appropriate to the content to be taught should be determined. Aids and equipment needed should be recorded and subject-matter notes prepared. The lesson notes should be arranged in logical sequence and should contain: notes to assist teaching, notes and diagrams for the blackboard or overhead projector, notes for students to write and class-word exercises for class practice. Worksheets or incomplete handouts should be prepared and aids organized. The lesson plan can then be written and should be used as a basis for controlling the timing and content of the lesson. It should be written in a logical sequence and should provide a framework for development of the subject, being laid out so as to make the most effective use of available time. A variety of activities should be included, together with checks of learning. The plan should also contain details of methods and aids to be employed during the lesson.

  3. Checking and rehearsing.

    Plays are rehearsed before the first night in order to ensure a flawless performance and to check lights and props. In the same way, a lesson should be rehearsed in order to try out aids and blackboard layout. Class-word examples should be worked out in advance to verify that no information is missing and that examples set are capable of solution. Teachers cannot hope to produce a perfect lesson plan for every lesson. In many cases the plan will have to be modified in the light of experience gained during the first presentation of the lesson. As the lesson progresses (and if you remember and not too pressurized to do so) actual timings should be recorded and a brief note made of any shortcomings in preparation, presentation, aids or methods. The revised plan based upon consideration of the notes made will give a more realistic outline for use when the lesson is repeated.

The teacher as a manager of learning must be careful not to adversely affect student behavior motivation and outcomes. Student apathy and lack of effort are not necessarily a matter of mere laziness. Often, they are healthy reactions by normal people to an unhealthy environment – created all too commonly by unsound teaching practices and policies. When you and your students operate as a team, loyalty, co-operation and morale will improve and the group will undoubtedly function more effectively and with higher attainment than could otherwise be expected. Motivation to learn increases and individual talents are utilized for the benefit of the group. Destructive behavior and lack of support is replaced by positive and helpful effort leading to a responsible attitude and the will to succeed. Outcomes of teamwork are normally much better than the sum of individual efforts. Personal satisfaction also results from helping one another to master tasks confronting the group.

Action-centered leadership theory suggests three sets of needs that overlap and interact in any teamwork activity: The need to accomplish the task set will clearly affect each of the other two sets of needs. Individuals’ needs must somehow be satisfied, and in this respect good supportive leadership is essential to success. Team maintenance will be reinforced by making good progress with the task and keeping up team morale. A delicate balance needs to be maintained between the three sets of needs in order to get the task completed without losing group cohesiveness or individual support. A favorable attitude to learning through teamwork can be promoted by: All this sound fine, but how does one develop a good team? Some teachers have succeeded by communicating well, showing an understanding and caring attitude, setting a good example and involving and encouraging their students right from the start. Effective managers have a high level of "people skills" that contribute to the success of a company. Modern teachers are managers and facilitators of learning, and they too need to be competent in behavioral aspects of team management as well as resource management.

Active participation of the student in curriculum design, choice of learning method, selection of learning resources, assessment and evaluation of activities and review of outcomes is now becoming more widespread. The term student-centered learning describes learning situations in which students are expected, within reasonable limits, to take responsibility for identifying and agreeing objectives, planning and implementing their own learning activities and appraising learning outcomes with a tutor.

Lesson delivery and classroom management

The following questions should be answered before preparing a lesson: If (as evidence suggests) student achievement drops dramatically as the lesson proceeds, ways should be found to re-motivate the student during the lesson. This can be done by providing a two-minute break in the middle of a lesson when small groups discuss a problem. If immediate application of what is taught is essential, ways should be found to ensure that this is done. One of the ways of achieving this is to set questions shortly before the end of the lecture session which can be discussed by small groups of two to three students.
If a lecture is the best method to achieve the aims which you have in mind, the next stage is to organize the material. This can be done in three stages: Lectures are more effective when they use brief notes consisting of headings and sub-headings rather than full notes which are read or copied on to a blackboard. These brief notes can provide the basis of the presentation. A decision must also be taken regarding the use of students’ handouts. These can contain a list of objectives to be achieved, a summary of the lesson, useful references, diagrams, questions to be answered and spaces for students to write in.

Much of what has already been stated is of direct relevance to the actual delivery of the lecture. The following general rules are also worth bearing in mind: The problem associated with student misbehavior are best dealt with through preventive management which focuses on how teachers gain student cooperation and how they establish and teach clear rules and procedures.

The key to successful classroom teaching and management is gaining student cooperation in classroom activities and their engagement in the appropriate learning tasks. From this point of view, a teacher’s main function is to plan and orchestrate well-conceived activities that flow smoothly. Actions by students that disrupt this activity flow constitute misbehavior. Appropriate teacher interventions to disruptions, should be quick and as non-intrusive as possible in order to keep learning activities flowing smoothly.